Images of Humanoid robot

NASA and General Motors have come together to develop the next generation dexterous humanoid robot. The robots – called Robonaut 2 – were designed to use the same tools as humans, which allows them to work safely side-by-side humans on Earth and in space.



Robonaut 2 surpasses previous dexterous humanoid robots in strength, yet it is safe enough to work side-by-side with humans. It is able to lift, not just hold, this 20-pound weight (about four times heavier than what other dexterous robots can handle) both near and away from its body.

Chris Ihrke, senior project engineer for General Motors, works with the new dexterous humanoid robot developed by NASA and General Motors at Johnson Space Center.



Robonaut 2 surpasses previous dexterous humanoid robots in strength, yet it is safe enough to work side-by-side with humans. It is able to lift, not just hold, this 20-pound weight (about four times heavier than what other dexterous robots can handle) both near and away from its body.

Robonaut 2 : The first humanoid robot that will be in space

Almost 200 people from 15 countries have visited the International Space Station, but the orbiting complex has so far only ever had human crew members – until now.

Robonaut 2, the latest generation of the Robonaut astronaut helpers, is set to launch to the space station aboard space shuttle Discovery on the STS-133 mission. It will be the first humanoid robot in space, and although its primary job for now is teaching engineers how dexterous robots behave in space, the hope is that through upgrades and advancements, it could one day venture outside the station to help spacewalkers make repairs or additions to the station or perform scientific work.

R2, as the robot is called, will launch inside the Leonardo Permanent Multipurpose Module, which will be packed with supplies and equipment for the station and then installed permanently on the Unity node. Once R2 is unpacked – likely several months after it arrives – it will initially be operated inside the Destiny laboratory for operational testing, but over time both its territory and its applications could expand. There are no plans to return R2 to Earth.

NASA Discovers New Super-Hot Planet with Unique Comet-Like Tail

Astronomers using NASA's Hubble Space Telescope have confirmed the existence of a baked object that could be called a "cometary planet." The gas giant planet, named HD 209458b, is orbiting so close to its star that its heated atmosphere is escaping into space.

Observations taken with Hubble's Cosmic Origins Spectrograph (COS) suggest powerful stellar winds are sweeping the cast-off atmospheric material behind the scorched planet and shaping it into a comet-like tail.

"Since 2003 scientists have theorized the lost mass is being pushed back into a tail, and they have even calculated what it looks like," said astronomer Jeffrey Linsky of the University of Colorado in Boulder, leader of the COS study. "We think we have the best observational evidence to support that theory. We have measured gas coming off the planet at specific speeds, some coming toward Earth. The most likely interpretation is that we have measured the velocity of material in a tail."

The planet, located 153 light-years from Earth, weighs slightly less than Jupiter but orbits 100 times closer to its star than the Jovian giant. The roasted planet zips around its star in a short 3.5 days. In contrast, our solar system's fastest planet, Mercury, orbits the Sun in 88 days. The extrasolar planet is one of the most intensely scrutinized, because it is the first of the few known alien worlds that can be seen passing in front of, or transiting, its star. Linsky and his team used COS to analyze the planet's atmosphere during transiting events. During a transit, astronomers study the structure and chemical makeup of a planet's atmosphere by sampling the starlight that passes through it. The dip in starlight because of the planet's passage, excluding the atmosphere, is very small, only about 1.5 percent. When the atmosphere is added, the dip jumps to 8 percent, indicating a bloated atmosphere.

COS detected the heavy elements carbon and silicon in the planet's super-hot, 2,000-degree-Fahrenheit atmosphere. This detection revealed the parent star is heating the entire atmosphere, dredging up the heavier elements and allowing them to escape the planet.

The COS data also showed the material leaving the planet was not all traveling at the same speed. "We found gas escaping at high velocities, with a large amount of this gas flowing toward us at 22,000 miles per hour," Linsky said. "This large gas flow is likely gas swept up by the stellar wind to form the comet-like tail trailing the planet."

Hubble's newest spectrograph has the ability to probe a planet's chemistry at ultraviolet wavelengths not accessible to ground-based telescopes. COS is proving to be an important instrument for probing the atmospheres of "hot Jupiters" like HD 209458b.

Another Hubble instrument, the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS), observed the planet in 2003. The STIS data showed an active, evaporating atmosphere, and a comet-tail-like structure was suggested as a possibility. But STIS wasn't able to obtain the spectroscopic detail necessary to show a tail, or an Earthward-moving component of the gas, during transits. The tail was detected for the first time because of the unique combination of very high ultraviolet sensitivity and good spectral resolution provided by COS.

Although this extreme planet is being roasted by its star, it won't be destroyed anytime soon. "It will take about a trillion years for the planet to evaporate," Linsky said.

The results appeared in the July 10 issue of The Astrophysical Journal.

The Hubble Space Telescope is a project of international cooperation between NASA and the European Space Agency. NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center manages the telescope. The Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) conducts Hubble science operations. STScI is operated for NASA by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. in Washington, D.C.

NASA's Juno spacecraft Up to Go to Jupiter

NASA's Juno spacecraft will be forging ahead into a treacherous environment at Jupiter with more radiation than any other place NASA has ever sent a spacecraft, except the sun. In a specially filtered cleanroom in Denver, where Juno is being assembled, engineers recently added a unique protective shield around its sensitive electronics. New pictures of the assembly were released today.

"Juno is basically an armored tank going to Jupiter," said Scott Bolton, Juno's principal investigator, based at Southwest Research Institute in San Antonio. "Without its protective shield, or radiation vault, Juno's brain would get fried on the very first pass near Jupiter."

An invisible force field filled with high-energy particles coming off from Jupiter and its moons surrounds the largest planet in our solar system. This magnetic force field, similar to a less powerful one around Earth, shields Jupiter from charged particles flying off the sun. The electrons, protons and ions around Jupiter are energized by the planet's super-fast rotation, sped up to nearly the speed of light.

Jupiter's radiation belts are shaped like a huge doughnut around the planet's equatorial region and extend out past the moon Europa, about 650,000 kilometers (400,000 miles) out from the top of Jupiter's clouds.

"For the 15 months Juno orbits Jupiter, the spacecraft will have to withstand the equivalent of more than 100 million dental X-rays," said Bill McAlpine, Juno's radiation control manager, based at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, Calif. "In the same way human beings need to protect their organs during an X-ray exam, we have to protect Juno's brain and heart."

The strategy? Give Juno a kind of six-sided lead apron on steroids.

With guidance from JPL and the principal investigator, engineers at Lockheed Martin Space Systems designed and built a special radiation vault made of titanium for a centralized electronics hub. While other materials exist that make good radiation blockers, engineers chose titanium because lead is too soft to withstand the vibrations of launch, and some other materials were too difficult to work with.

Each titanium wall measures nearly a square meter (nearly 9 square feet) in area, about 1 centimeter (a third of an inch) in thickness, and 18 kilograms (40 pounds) in mass. This titanium box -- about the size of an SUV's trunk – encloses Juno's command and data handling box (the spacecraft's brain), power and data distribution unit (its heart) and about 20 other electronic assemblies. The whole vault weighs about 200 kilograms (500 pounds).

The vault is not designed to completely prevent every Jovian electron, ion or proton from hitting the system, but it will dramatically slow down the aging effect radiation has on electronics for the duration of the mission.

"The centralized radiation vault is the first of its kind," Bolton said. "We basically designed it from the ground up."

When NASA's Galileo spacecraft visited Jupiter from 1995 to 2003, its electronics were shielded by special components designed to be resistant to radiation. Galileo also didn't need to survive the harshest radiation regions, where Juno will operate.

But Juno isn't relying solely on the radiation vault. Scientists designed a path that takes Juno around Jupiter's poles, spending as little time as possible in the sizzling radiation belts around Jupiter's equator. Engineers also used designs for electronics already approved for the Martian radiation environment, which is harsher than Earth's, though not as harsh as Jupiter's. Parts of the electronics were made from tantalum, or tungsten, another radiation-resistant metal. Some assemblies also have their own mini-vaults for protection.

Packing the assemblies next to each other allows them to shield their neighbors. In addition, engineers wrapped copper and stainless steel braids like chain mail around wires connecting the electronics to other parts of the spacecraft.

JPL tested pieces of the vault in a radiation environment similar to Jupiter's to make sure the design will be able to handle the stress of space flight and the Jupiter environment, McAlpine said. In a special lead-lined testing tub there, they battered pieces of the spacecraft with gamma rays from radioactive cobalt pellets and analyzed the results for Juno's expedition.

The vault was lifted onto Juno's propulsion module on May 19 at Lockheed Martin's high-bay cleanroom. It will undergo further testing once the whole spacecraft is put together. The assembly and testing process, which also includes installing solar panels for the first-ever solar-powered mission to Jupiter, is expected to last through next spring. Juno is expected to launch in August 2011.

"The Juno assembly is proceeding well," said Tim Gasparrini, Lockheed Martin program manager. "We have a number of the flight and test unit spacecraft avionics components installed into the radiation vault for system testing and we have also just installed the first instrument, the microwave radiometer."

JPL manages the Juno mission for the principal investigator, Scott Bolton, of Southwest Research Institute at San Antonio, Texas. Lockheed Martin Space Systems, Denver, Colo., is building the spacecraft. The Italian Space Agency in Rome is contributing an infrared spectrometer instrument and a portion of the radio science experiment.

Microsoft Research and NASA Bring Mars Down to Earth Through the WorldWide Telescope

Today, Microsoft Research and NASA are providing an entirely new experience to users of the WorldWide Telescope, which will allow visitors to interact with and explore our solar system like never before. Viewers can now take exclusive interactive tours of the red planet, hear directly from NASA scientists, and view and explore the most complete, highest-resolution coverage of Mars available. To experience Mars up close, Microsoft and NASA encourage viewers to download the new WWT|Mars experience at http://www.worldwidetelescope.org.

Dan Fay, director of Microsoft Research’s Earth, Energy and Environment effort, works with scientists around the world to see how technology can help solve their research challenges. Since early 2009, he’s been working with NASA to bring imagery from the agency’s Mars and Moon missions to life, and to make their valuable volumes of information more accessible to the masses.

“We wanted to make it easier for people everywhere, as well as scientists, to access these unique and valuable images,” says Fay. “NASA had the images and they were open to new ways to share them. Through the WorldWide Telescope we were able to build a user interface at WWT|Mars that would allow people to take advantage of the great content they had.”

To create the new Mars experience in the WorldWide Telescope, Fay worked closely with Michael Broxton of the NASA Ames Research Center’s Intelligent Robotics Group (IRG). Broxton leads a team in the IRG informally called the Mapmakers, which applies computer vision and image processing to problems of cartography. Over the years, the Mapmakers have taken satellite images from Mars, the moon and elsewhere, and turned them into useful maps. Broxton says that getting the results of NASA’s work out to the public is an important part of his mission.

“NASA has a history of providing the public with access to our spacecraft imagery,” he says. “With projects like the WorldWide Telescope, we’re working to provide greater access so that future generations of scientists can discover space in their own way.”

It is the mission of Fay’s team at Microsoft to push the boundaries of technology in service of scientific discovery and advance the state of the art in computer science overall. He explains that the approach to the Mars WorldWide Telescope project was to provide information at your fingertips. As such, Fay says the WorldWide Telescope is as much a research project as a Web service — one that has resulted in a truly stellar experience for users.

“We were able to take the imagery from NASA, combine it with their elevation models and lay those onto the surface of the globe of Mars,” Fay says. “Now users of the WorldWide Telescope can zoom down and actually experience the surface-level detail of Mars. They can pan back and see the height of the craters or the depth of the canyons. The new Mars experience allows people to feel as though they’re actually there.”

In particular, there’s a new dataset from the University of Arizona’s High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE), a state-of-the-art, remote-sensing camera on NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. HiRISE collects incredible images of super high resolution — a quarter of a meter per pixel on average. Each HiRISE image is a gigapixel in size, containing 100 times as much information as a 10 megapixel off-the-shelf camera.

“Due to its size, the data set is too unwieldy for many people to work with,” notes Fay. “But that large data set is necessary to provide the most in-depth experience — the most beautiful images, which are full of information. We needed this immense level of data to even begin to attempt to create this unique Mars experience.”

To get those images out to the public in a new way, the team set an ambitious goal to take all of the HiRISE images, 13,000 or so, and stitch them onto a single coherent map. While HiRISE has only imaged about 1 percent of Mars, leaving vast regions of Mars still to be explored, all of the HiRISE images have now been geolocated on a single map, and correlated with other global Mars data sets. Dotted with HiRISE images acquired so far, this new coherent map is the highest-resolution map of Mars’ surface ever constructed.

“Not only is it going to be amazing for the general public to see, but it’s actually something that scientists have never been able to see before,” Broxton says. “This particular feat has never been attempted.”

The reason for that, he says, is the technical challenge behind the project. The resolution of the images is so high and the files so large that NASA has been crunching the raw data for three years now. For anyone who’s ever tried to edit a picture from a digital camera and had the computer spin on it for several seconds, multiply that by 100, or more. And then multiply the number of images by 13,000. Multiply the number of tasks by another dozen and you can begin to see why the process has never been attempted. Broxton leveraged Nebula, NASA’s high-performance computing cloud, to process the image data. In all, the HiRISE mosaic took 14 days to process on 114 CPUs and constitutes the entire collection that has been taken by the orbiting camera as of May 2010.

“It’s an indispensible archive of information, but it’s not very easy to access unless you have an expertise in processing lots of data,” Broxton says. “Nebula allowed us to take the data, process it into a format appropriate for the WorldWide Telescope, and then make the entire catalog of NASA’s Mars information available on desktops around the world through the WorldWide Telescope.”

The images themselves reside on the Nebula cloud at the NASA Ames Research Center, near San José, California. Fay says hosting the data offsite is not a new approach, but rather one that allows WorldWide Telescope to use imagery from just about anyone. Thanks to the magic of the cloud, other imagery on the site is hosted at Microsoft datacenters around the world. Hubble’s resides in Baltimore. The California Institute of Technology’s is in Pasadena.

“Anyone can actually put up their own astronomical images and view them through WorldWide Telescope,” says Fay. “We’ve worked with folks at several other institutions to make their images available.”

Retrieving images from all over the world is as smooth as any experience on the Web today. The secret is a tiling system that uses the visitor’s desktop computer to process the imagery. With such a huge amount of information contained in one coherent tool, users are able to browse and zoom into interesting locations as they please. Visitors to the WorldWide Telescope can now have the experience of flying though a 3-D rendering of Victoria Crater and Olympus Mons — a low valley and the highest peak in our solar system — and can experience firsthand the extreme elevation and intricate features on the Martian surface.

“We take advantage of the computing power you have on your desktop to allow a smooth, 3-D experience,” explains Fay. “As you zoom in, it’s a really constant view of these images. You can now get a true sense for what the terrain looks like.”

Broxton says the 3-D effect is derived from information provided by an instrument called MOLA, the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter, which measured altitude along the surface of Mars from space from NASA’s Mars Global Surveyor orbiter. The team also combined that information with a stereo image-reconstruction process — taking two images from different angles and using that to build a 3-D model of the terrain.

“These images give you a particularly visceral impression of, for example, the Mars Exploration Rover landing sites,” Broxton says. “You can see what it’s like in the hills there or zoom into surface craters. It’s really amazing stuff.”

For scientists and hardcore hobbyists, Fay’s team at Microsoft has developed another feature that puts the image in the context of the mission from which it was collected. Users can right-click on some of the images and find their original Web pages at NASA with additional details on the HiRISE project.

“So it’s not just the imagery, but bringing it together with the context,” Fay says. “We think that capability will make this an exciting tool for scientists and educators.”

So what is the surface of Mars like? According to Broxton, part of what’s striking about Mars is its similarity to what we’re used to here on Earth. Mars shares many of the same Aeolian (wind), tectonic, volcanic and even water processes, the effects of which are visible on the planet’s surface.

“I often think of Mars as being a beautiful, barren, sculpted desert much like the American Southwest,” Broxton says. “On earth, most of our craters have been erased because we have a much more active tectonic and volcanic process, but aside from that, there’s a lot of similarity.”

Back on Earth, Fay and his team are already looking at ways to continue building the WorldWide Telescope as a platform for advancing scientific learning, and a showcase for how technology can help facilitate understanding. He says that when he recently showed the new features to his son, the importance of that mission hit home.

“It gave my young son a sense of what the space mission is about, and why we as a nation invest in it,” he says. “I think that people who look at this will be amazed by these images and the detail of what these cameras can pick up. Seeing the solar system spinning in time, the details of the Martian planet, you could spend hours getting lost in space.”

Get more inforamtion on the Last Shuttle External Tank Rolling Out on July 8

The last external tank scheduled to fly on a space shuttle mission will roll out at NASA's Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans July 8. Want to be part of this historic event? Simply visit this page on Wednesday, July 7 from 11-noon EDT, and Mark Bryant, vice president of the External Tank (ET) Program for Lockheed Martin Space Systems, will answer your questions about the exteral tank. The chat window will be active at the bottom of this page starting at 10:30 a.m. EDT. See you in chat!

More About External Tank ET-138
Designated ET-138, it will be loaded onto a barge to begin its 900-mile sea journey to NASA's Kennedy Space Center, Fla. The external tank, the "gas tank" for the orbiter, holds the propellants used by the space shuttle main engines. It also is the "backbone" of the shuttle during launch, providing structural support for attachment with the solid rocket boosters and orbiter. It is the only component of the space shuttle that is not reused. Approximately 8.5 minutes into the flight, with its propellant used, the tank is jettisoned into the ocean.

Taller than a 15-story building and more than 27 feet in diameter, the external tank absorbs the 7.8 million pounds of thrust of the three space shuttle main engines and solid rocket boosters during a space shuttle launch. It feeds 145,000 gallons of liquid oxygen and 390,000 gallons of liquid hydrogen to the main engines.

The three main components of the external tank include the liquid oxygen tank, liquid hydrogen tank and the collar-like intertank, which connects the two propellant tanks. The intertank houses instrumentation and processing equipment and provides the attachment structure for the solid rocket boosters.

When ET-138 arrives at Kennedy, processing will begin to mate it with shuttle Endeavour and solid rocket boosters for the STS-134 mission, scheduled to launch no earlier than mid-November. The mission will deliver the Express Logistics Carrier 3 and the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer to the International Space Station. It will be the 36th shuttle mission to the space station and the 134th and final scheduled shuttle flight.

Michoud Space Systems workers, of Lockheed Martin Corporation, Littleton, Colo., have delivered 135 flight tanks to NASA during the 25 years of flying the space shuttle.

Work will be completed on one additional external tank, ET-122, which was at Michoud during Hurricane Katrina in August 2005 and damaged by falling debris. It is being restored to flight configuration and is scheduled for delivery to Kennedy in late September to serve as the “Launch on Need” tank, if needed, for STS-134.

NASA's Next Mars Rover Sports a Set of New Wheels

NASA's next Mars rover, Curiosity, is sitting pretty on a set of spiffy new wheels that would be the envy of any car show on Earth.

The wheels and a suspension system were added this week by spacecraft technicians and engineers. These new and important touches are a key step in assembling and testing the flight system in advance of a planned 2011 launch.

Curiosity, centerpiece of NASA's Mars Science Laboratory mission, is a six-wheeler and uses a rocker-bogie suspension system like its smaller predecessors: Spirit, Opportunity and Sojourner. Each wheel has its own drive motor, and the corner wheels also have independent steering motors. Unlike earlier Mars rovers, Curiosity will also use its mobility system as a landing gear when the mission's rocket-powered descent stage lowers the rover directly onto the Martian surface on a tether in August 2012.

In coming months at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the mobility system will get functional testing and be part of environmental testing of the rover. The mobility system will now stay on Curiosity through launch unless testing identifies a need for rework that would require it to be disassembled.

The mission will launch from Florida during the period Nov. 25 to Dec. 18, 2011. Curiosity will examine an area of Mars for modern or ancient habitable environments, including any that may have also been favorable for preserving clues about life and environment, though this mission will not seek evidence of life. It will examine rocks, soil and atmosphere with a diverse payload of tools, including a laser to vaporize patches of rock from a distance and an instrument designed to test for organic compounds.

Next Mars Rover (Curiosity) Sports a Set of New Wheels

NASA's next Mars rover, Curiosity, is sitting pretty on a set of spiffy new wheels that would be the envy of any car show on Earth.

The wheels and a suspension system were added this week by spacecraft technicians and engineers. These new and important touches are a key step in assembling and testing the flight system in advance of a planned 2011 launch.

Curiosity, centerpiece of NASA's Mars Science Laboratory mission, is a six-wheeler and uses a rocker-bogie suspension system like its smaller predecessors: Spirit, Opportunity and Sojourner. Each wheel has its own drive motor, and the corner wheels also have independent steering motors. Unlike earlier Mars rovers, Curiosity will also use its mobility system as a landing gear when the mission's rocket-powered descent stage lowers the rover directly onto the Martian surface on a tether in August 2012.

In coming months at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the mobility system will get functional testing and be part of environmental testing of the rover. The mobility system will now stay on Curiosity through launch unless testing identifies a need for rework that would require it to be disassembled.

The mission will launch from Florida during the period Nov. 25 to Dec. 18, 2011. Curiosity will examine an area of Mars for modern or ancient habitable environments, including any that may have also been favorable for preserving clues about life and environment, though this mission will not seek evidence of life. It will examine rocks, soil and atmosphere with a diverse payload of tools, including a laser to vaporize patches of rock from a distance and an instrument designed to test for organic compounds.

New technology - Versatile Small-Scale Rocket Motor Test Evaluates New Materials

Fire and sparks flew as a 24-inch-diameter solid rocket motor was successfully tested May 27 at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Ala. The 21-second firing tested a NASA sub-scale motor designed as a versatile, quick-turnaround and low-cost way to determine the performance of new materials and designs.

This 24-inch-diameter, 109-inch-long motor utilized propellant and a case reconfigured from space shuttle test equipment. The test motor’s nozzle was replaced with a new design scaled from the Ares I first-stage development motor, but could also be modified to accommodate different mission profiles or different sized vehicles, including heavy-lift vehicles.

The test data will be evaluated to better understand the performance of the new nozzle configuration, processes and materials.

"A rocket's nozzle needs to be protected from the incredibly harsh environment to which it is exposed during launch. A full-scale solid rocket motor's nozzle must survive a two minute launch at over 5000-degrees Fahrenheit," said Scott Ringel, an engineer at the Marshall Center and the design lead for this test. "We need to ensure our materials and designs can hold up, and small-scale tests like this one give us added confidence."

NASA is a unique customer for many materials and requires highly reliable systems, thoroughly tested and evaluated for human spaceflight programs. One change in the availability of a part, supplier or material can potentially impact vehicle design, flight operations and mission assurance. Finding adequate replacements involves extensive testing and qualification efforts. Testing a sub-scale version of a rocket motor is a cost-effective way to assess new materials, technologies or processes, and rapidly evaluate performance.

"We have extensive experience with thousands of materials used in the shuttle program, but many have become obsolete because of environmental concerns or industrial trends," added Ringel. "As new technologies drive the development of new materials, sub-scale testing ensures we can effectively replace obsolete materials with new and improved options."

The test also includes two secondary objectives.

The engineering team introduced an intentional defect into the propellant. A small cut was placed in the propellant inner diameter to verify the analytic methodology used to determine critical flaw sizes. The team hopes to gain a better understanding for the margin for error.

In addition, NASA's Engineering and Safety Center will use data gleaned from this test to better understand the acoustics and vibration environment resulting from the rocket motor’s plume.

Engineers from the Marshall Center's Engineering Directorate designed the test article with support from ATK Aerospace Systems of Huntsville, Ala.

Future aircraft Supersonic Green Machine

This future aircraft design concept for supersonic flight over land comes from the team led by the Lockheed Martin Corporation.

The team's simulation shows possibility for achieving overland flight by dramatically lowering the level of sonic booms through the use of an "inverted-V" engine-under wing configuration. Other revolutionary technologies help achieve range, payload and environmental goals.

This supersonic cruise concept is among the designs presented in April 2010 to the NASA Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate for its NASA Research Announcement-funded studies into advanced aircraft that could enter service in the 2030-2035 timeframe.

Mysterious River Channels on the Moon

Rilles are long, narrow depressions on the lunar surface that look like river channels. Some are straight, some curve, and others, like the ones highlighted here, are called "sinuous" rilles and have strong meanders that twist and turn across the moon. Rilles are especially visible in radar imagery, like that gathered by LRO's Mini-RF instrument. The formation of lunar rilles is not well understood. It is believed there may be many different formation mechanisms including ancient magma flows and the collapse of subterranean lava tubes. Imagery from LRO will help researchers to better understand these mysterious "river-like" lunar features.

Spacecraft’s re-entry

The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency’s Hayabusa spacecraft streaked across the sky like a saber of light through the clouds as it re-entered Earth’s atmosphere over the Woomera Test Range in Australia. In Kingoonya, the spacecraft’s re-entry was visible to the human eye for only 15 seconds.

NASA’s first oceanographic research Voyage Begins

NASA’s first oceanographic research expedition got underway this morning as the U.S. Coast Guard icebreaker Healy steamed out of this island fishing port in the North Pacific. The five-week ICESCAPE mission, which stands for "Impacts of Climate on Ecosystems and Chemistry of the Arctic Pacific Environment," is now heading for the Bering Strait on its way north into the Chukchi and Beaufort seas.

The science teams on the mission spent a full day on Monday loading scientific gear and supplies onto the Healy, unpacking equipment, and setting up laboratory space. "It's been kind of a crazy day," said ICESCAPE chief scientist Kevin Arrigo of Stanford University. "There are a lot of people – nearly 50 scientists -- and a lot to set up. Doing all that in one day is not a lot of time. But the Healy crew has been great in helping us get everything set up."

NASA is sponsoring the research expedition to explore how changes in the Arctic sea ice cover are altering the ocean ecology in the region. The scientists onboard will take a detailed look at how changing conditions in the Arctic are affecting the ocean’s chemistry and biology that play a critical role in global climate change.

"This is a really exciting cruise for me," said ICESCAPE co-chief scientist Don Perovich of the U.S. Army's Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, N.H. "I've been on a lot of cruises to polar regions. I've probably spent a year and a half of my life on icebreaker cruises. But this is the first time I've been out with a large group of biologists and biogeochemists, and that's really exciting."

What’s in every breath you take?

Traveling to Los Angeles can be a hazardous undertaking. The buzzing coastal city at the very edge of the American frontier has long been a symbol of exploration and progress. As planes land in L.A., they must first penetrate the dark, ominous cloud that hangs constantly above the skyscrapers. Smog lies over L.A. like a thick blanket, dimming the sunshine of the Golden State.

To some degree, scientists have been aware of air pollution for centuries, but it wasn't until the late 1940s that some of the causes were recognized. Since then, most atmospheric chemistry has focused on gas-phase interactions, as the majority of the atmosphere is a continuous gas phase, or reactions in the liquid phase, taking place within droplets of condensed matter. But these chemical models do not account for a significant portion of what is happening in the air above us.

A large number of atmospheric reactions occur under conditions we know very little about, and the Holy Grail of atmospheric chemistry has become developing a basic, molecular-level understanding of the reactions that occur in this mystery world--at the air-water interface, where the gas phase meets the liquid phase, and the reactions bear no resemblance to either phase alone.

In order to study these processes, Barbara Finlayson-Pitts and her team, first funded by the National Science Foundation's (NSF)Chemistry Division in 2002, have developed the Atmospheric Integrated Research for Understanding Chemistry at Interfaces (AirUCI) collaboration. The goal of AirUCI is to find that Holy Grail and develop the necessary understanding of the air-water interface and its effect on air quality. AirUCI uses an integrated approach, including experiments, theory and computer modeling to expand the very small amount of existing knowledge about reactions at interfaces.

The urgency of AirUCI's research comes from an understanding of how fragile the air we breathe truly is.

"Ninety-nine percent of the atmosphere is in the lowest 30 kilometers, concentrated in this tenuous layer we live in," says Mike Ezell, a senior researcher in Finlayson-Pitts's lab.

Ezell's work, like much of the work at AirUCI, focuses on aerosol particles, miniscule suspensions of matter in the air. The properties of aerosol particles have enormous implications for global climate change. Aerosol particles act as condensation nuclei for clouds, which need particles to form. Smaller particles result in smaller cloud droplets and longer-lived clouds, resulting in more reflected radiation and a greater cooling effect. Some larger particles, like soot, absorb light, causing a warming effect. In addition, the particles themselves scatter light, affecting the amount of radiation that reaches the Earth's surface.

"Climate change and air pollution are very closely linked," says Finlayson-Pitts. "One of the points people tend to miss in the debate on climate change is how much air pollution is really a factor. It isn't all about carbon dioxide."

Finlayson-Pitts' team is also concerned with the health effects of emissions, particularly in the production of ozone. Ozone, while a significant gas high in the stratosphere, is a health risk when produced in our tropospheric home. Researchers in the Nizkorodov lab at AirUCI are focused on the production of ozone from the commercial air purifiers that provide clean, safe air in our homes. Commercial air purifiers break up oxygen gas (O2) into single oxygen atoms, which can recombine into ozone (O3). Especially when placed in small rooms, these machines can rapidly increase the amount of the hazardous gas to a dangerous level, which has known severe effects on the lungs, causing cough, pain and shortness of breath.

The other source of ozone the team is studying, highlighted in 2000 and 2005 articles in Science, is the oxidation of chloride ions (Cl-) by hydroxide (OH) on the surface of particles, and producing chloride gas (Cl2). The gas photolyzes easily, splitting into chlorine atoms (Cl), which react very quickly with almost all organic particles, like those that we emit, producing a large amount of ozone as well as other pollutants. The AirUCI labs showed for the first time that this reaction occurs very quickly at the air-water interface, as chloride ions are readily available, demonstrated by theoretical models, and the surface reaction does not require the same conditions that the same reaction would require in the bulk of a liquid droplet.

The Hemminger lab works with AirUCI to develop a fundamental understanding of reactions at solution interfaces. At the same time, other researchers in the lab are a part of an effort, funded by the Department of Energy and the California Community Foundation, to solve some energy issues. As demand for energy continues to outstrip the available supply, new technology to make clean, efficient energy possible becomes a more urgent need.

The vast majority of these technologies are simply not ready for the market; according to John Hemminger, widespread use of solar panels may be economically feasible in several decades, but even then, it may not be able to compete with oil in a free market. "Between us and feasible solar energy is either $200 per barrel oil, or fundamental science," says Hemminger.

In order to address this pressing need, the Hemminger lab is working on understanding radiation interactions on matter, focusing on radiation on surfaces, in the hopes of developing new, more efficient methods of harnessing the sun's energy.

Uncovering the secrets of air-water interfaces is not the only duty that AirUCI has taken on. "We are committed to conveying that to the public and K-12 educators," Finlayson-Pitts says. Each year, the AirUCI teacher workshop brings in middle and high school teachers, giving them lectures from leaders in the field of atmospheric chemistry as well as valuable experience using top-of-the-line lab equipment. Teachers then take the information they gain back to their classrooms.

"If we want to develop the next generation in science and technology, and if we want taxpayers to support us," says Finlayson-Pitts, "it is important that we interface with the public, invite them in, and show them what we are doing. It is an important responsibility."

AirUCI's research is illuminating a world of reactions that have powerful implications for each breath we take, as well as for projections of future conditions. Currently, the models used to predict future air and climate conditions do not account for air-water interface chemistry, because the fundamental understanding of these processes is not there.

"People know surface chemistry is happening, but it's not in the models. We need a molecular-level understanding of the processes occurring on surfaces in order to tell the modelers what to put in the models to accurately represent this chemistry and its potential effects," says Finlayson-Pitts.

And until we know what is truly happening in the air above us, there is no way to comprehend the full scope of effects and consequences our activities have on our world and on our future.

Aurora

An aurora is a natural display of light in the sky that can be seen with the unaided eye only at night. An auroral display in the Northern Hemisphere is called the aurora borealis, or the northern lights. A similar phenomenon in the Southern Hemisphere is called the aurora australis. Auroras are the most visible effect of the sun's activity on the earth's atmosphere.

Most auroras occur in far northern and southern regions. They appear chiefly as arcs, clouds, and streaks. Some move, brighten, or flicker suddenly. The most common color in an aurora is green. But displays that occur extremely high in the sky may be red or purple. Most auroras occur about 60 to 620 miles (97 to 1,000 kilometers) above the earth. Some extend lengthwise across the sky for thousands of miles or kilometers.

A bar magnet has a magnetic field like that of the sun. Field lines, which represent the field, exit the north pole and enter the south pole.

A bar magnet has a magnetic field like that of the sun. Field lines, which represent the field, exit the north pole and enter the south pole. Image credit: World Book diagram by Precision Graphics
Auroral displays are associated with the solar wind, a continuous flow of electrically charged particles from the sun. When these particles reach the earth's magnetic field, some get trapped. Many of these particles travel toward the earth's magnetic poles. When the charged particles strike atoms and molecules in the atmosphere, energy is released. Some of this energy appears in the form of auroras.

Auroras occur most frequently during the most intense phase of the 11-year sunspot cycle. During this phase, dark patches on the sun's surface, called sunspots, increase in number. Violent eruptions on the sun's surface, known as solar flares, are associated with sunspots. Electrons and protons released by solar flares add to the number of solar particles that interact with the earth's atmosphere. This increased interaction produces extremely bright auroras. It also results in sharp variations in the earth's magnetic field called magnetic storms. During these storms, auroras may shift from the polar regions toward the equator.

Hayabusa spacecraft Comes Home

The Hayabusa capsule and bus entered the Earth's atmosphere over Woomera, Australia, on June 13 at 11:21 p.m. local time. From the perspective of NASA's DC-8 airborne observation team, the capsule moved below and slightly ahead of the bus and stayed clear of the spectacular breakup of the bus. After the bus had disintegrated, the capsule continued to create a wake, before reaching peak heating and then fading gradually.

That's when the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) expects the sample return capsule of the agency's technology demonstrator spacecraft, Hayabusa, to boomerang back to Earth. The capsule, along with its mother ship, visited a near-Earth asteroid, Itokawa, five years ago and has logged about 2 billion kilometers (1.25 billion miles) since its launch in May 2003.

With the return of the Hayabusa capsule, JAXA concluded a remarkable mission of exploration -- one in which NASA scientists and engineers played a contributing role.

"Hayabusa will be the first space mission to have made physical contact with an asteroid and returned to Earth," said Tommy Thompson, NASA's Hayabusa project manager from the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, Calif. "The mission and its team have faced and overcome several challenges over the past seven years. This round-trip journey is a significant space achievement and one which NASA is proud to be part of."

Launched May 9, 2003, from the Kagoshima Space Center, Uchinoura, Japan, Hayabusa was designed as a flying testbed. Its mission: to research several new engineering technologies necessary for returning planetary samples to Earth for further study. With Hayabusa, JAXA scientists and engineers hoped to obtain detailed information on electrical propulsion and autonomous navigation, as well as an asteroid sampler and sample reentry capsule.

The 510-kilogram (950-pound) Hayabusa spacecraft rendezvoused with asteroid Itokawa in September 2005. Over the next two-and-a-half months, the spacecraft made up-close and personal scientific observations of the asteroid's shape, terrain, surface altitude distribution, mineral composition, gravity, and the way it reflected the sun's rays. On Nov. 25 of that year, Hayabusa briefly touched down on the surface of Itokawa. That was only the second time in history a spacecraft descended to the surface of an asteroid (NASA's Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous-Shoemaker spacecraft landed on asteroid Eros on Feb. 12, 2001). Hayabusa marked the first attempt to sample asteroid surface material.

The spacecraft departed Itokawa in January 2007. The road home for the technology demonstrator has been a long one, with several anomalies encountered along the way. But now the spacecraft is three days away from its home planet, and the Australian government, working closely with JAXA, has cleared the mission for landing. A team of Japanese and American navigators is guiding Hayabusa on the final leg of its journey. Together, they calculate the final trajectory correction maneuvers Hayabusa's ion propulsion system must perform for a successful homecoming.

"We have been collaborating with the JAXA navigators since the launch of the mission," said Shyam Bhaskaran, a member of JPL's Hayabusa navigation team. "We worked closely with them during the descents to the asteroid, and now are working together to guide the spacecraft back home."

To obtain the data they need, the navigation team frequently calls upon JAXA's tracking stations in Japan, as well as those of NASA's Deep Space Network, which has antennas at Goldstone, in California's Mojave Desert; near Madrid, Spain; and near Canberra, Australia. In addition, the stations provide mission planners with near-continuous communications with the spacecraft to keep them informed on spacecraft health.

"Our task is to help advise JAXA on how to best get a spacecraft traveling at 12.2 kilometers per second (27,290 miles per hour) to intersect a very specific target point 200 kilometers (120 miles) above the Earth," said Bhaskaran. "Once that is done, and the heat shield of the sample return capsule starts glowing from atmospheric friction, our job is done."

While atmospheric entry may be the end of the line for the team that has plotted the spacecraft's every move for the past 2 billion kilometers, NASA's involvement continues for the craft's final 200 kilometers (120 miles), to the surface of the Australian Outback. A joint Japanese-U.S. team operating on the ground and in the air will monitor this most critical event to help retrieve the capsule and heat shield.

"This is the second highest velocity re-entry of a capsule in history," said Peter Jenniskens, a SETI Institute scientist at NASA's Ames Research Center in Moffett Field, Calif. "This extreme entry speed will result in high heating rates and thermal loads to the capsule's heat shield. Such manmade objects entering with interplanetary speed do not happen every day, and we hope to get a ringside seat to this one."

Jenniskens is leading an international team as it monitor the final plunge of Hayabusa to Earth using NASA's DC-8 airborne laboratory, which is managed and piloted by a crew from NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center, Edwards, Calif. The DC-8 flies above most clouds, allowing an unfettered line of sight for its instrument suite measuring the shock-heated gas and capsule surface radiation emitted by the re-entry fireball.

The data acquired by the high-flying team will help evaluate how thermal protection systems behave during these super-speedy spacecraft re-entries. This, in turn, will help engineers understand what a sample return capsule returning from Mars would undergo. The Hayabusa sample return capsule re-entry observation will be similar to earlier observations by the DC-8 team of NASA's Stardust capsule return, and the re-entry of the European Space Agency's ATV-1 ("Jules Verne") automated transfer vehicle.

Soon after the sample return capsule touches down on the ground, Hayabusa team members will retrieve it and transport it to JAXA's sample curatorial facility in Sagamihara, Japan. There, Japanese astromaterials scientists, assisted by two scientists from NASA and one from Australia, will perform a preliminary cataloging and analysis of the capsule's contents.

"This preliminary analysis follows the basic protocols used for Apollo moon rocks, Genesis and Stardust samples," said Mike Zolensky, a scientist at NASA's Astromaterials Research and Exploration Science Directorate at the Johnson Space Center, Houston. "If this capsule contains samples from the asteroid, we expect it will take a year to determine the primary characteristics of the samples, and learn how to best handle them. Then the samples will be distributed to scientists worldwide for more detailed analysis."

"The Japanese and NASA engineers and scientists involved in Hayabusa's return from asteroid Itokawa are proud of their collaboration and their joint accomplishments," said Thompson. "Certainly, any samples retrieved from Itokawa will provide exciting new insights to understanding the early history of the solar system. This will be the icing on the cake, as this mission has already taught us so much. "

Scientists Use New Technique Grow Cells in 3-D Using Magnetic Fields

Cells in the human body live in amazingly complex, three-dimensional environments that are crucial for the cells' proper function. The lung, for example, consists of layers of different kinds of cells that work together to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air and the blood.

The way these cells work together, and the chemicals that they express to communicate with one another, change when they live on a flat, two-dimensional surface.

Given these differences in cell behavior and expression, it's intriguing that the standard for testing new drugs and chemicals are tests that use cells grown in flat-bottomed Petri dishes.

In an effort to more accurately mimic the effect of drugs or toxic chemicals on real living tissue, scientists from Rice University and the University of Texas' M.D. Anderson Cancer Center in Houston have developed a new laboratory technique that uses magnetic levitation to grow cells in three-dimensional shapes. Compared with cell cultures grown on flat surfaces, these 3-D cell cultures form tissues that more closely resemble those inside the body. The technique has the potential to drastically reduce the cost of developing new drugs, as well as reduce the use of animals when testing the safety of manufactured chemicals. The team's results were published in March 2010 in Nature Nanotechnology.

"There's a big push right now to find ways to grow cells in 3-D because the body is 3-D, and cultures that more closely resemble native tissue are expected to provide better results for pre-clinical drug tests," said study co-author Tom Killian, associate professor of physics at Rice. "If you could improve the accuracy of early drug screenings by just 10 percent, it's estimated you could save as much as $100 million per drug."

The new technique is an example of the innovation that can result when experts come together from disparate fields. Killian uses magnetic fields to trap and manipulate atoms that have been cooled to near absolute zero. He had been working on a new project with Rice bioengineer Robert Raphael on methods to use magnetic fields to probe cellular membranes.

One day, Killian's friend, Glauco Souza, who was then studying with the center's professors, Wadih Arap and Renata Pasqualini, mentioned that he was developing a gel that could load cells with magnetic nanoparticles.

"We wondered if we might be able to use magnetic fields to levitate the treated cells off the bottom of the petri dish, allowing them to grow in 3-D," said Souza, who left M.D. Anderson in 2009 to co-found Nano3D Biosciences, a startup that subsequently licensed the technology from Rice and M.D. Anderson.

"When we tried it," Killian said, "we were shocked by how robustly the cells grew and how they displayed tissue shapes that resembled real tissue."

The 3-D technique is simple, fast, and requires no special equipment. These are big advantages compared to other technologies that have attempted to take cell culturing into the third dimension.

Souza said Nano3D Biosciences is conducting additional tests, and he is hopeful they will show magnetic levitation is as good, if not better, than longstanding techniques for growing 3-D cell cultures with scaffolds.

Nano3D Biosciences also has a grant from the National Science Foundation (NSF) to use the technique to grow a layered model of lung tissue that can be used to test the toxicity of airborne chemicals.

Co-authors on the Nature Nanotechnology paper include Robert Raphael, Daniel Stark, Jeyarama Ananta and Thomas Killian of Rice; Glauco Souza and Carly Levin of Nano3D Biosciences; and Jennifer Molina, Michael Ozawa, Lawrence Bronk, Jami Mandelin, Maria-Magdalena Georgescu, James Bankson, Juri Gelovani, Wadih Arap and Renata Pasqualini, all of M.D. Anderson.

The research was funded by NSF, M.D. Anderson's Odyssey Scholar Program, the Department of Defense's Breast Cancer Research Program, the David and Lucille Packard Foundation, the Gillson-Longenbaugh Foundation, the Marcus Foundation, AngelWorks, the National Institutes of Health and the National Cancer Institute.


For more info visit http://www.nsf.gov

Expedition 24 Set for a Launch to Station on June 15

Expedition 24 Flight Engineer Tracy Caldwell Dyson talked to the ESPN2 network Thursday on the eve of the World Cup opening matches in Johannesburg, South Africa. She also talked with students at the Cradle of Aviation Museum in Garden City, N.Y. Caldwell Dyson talked about her perspective of Earth from space and discussed living and working on the International Space Station.

Commander Alexander Skvortsov and Flight Engineer Mikhail Kornienko continued their science and maintenance activities in the Russian segment of the orbital laboratory. They checked and replaced filters and downloaded space radiation readings from a dosimeter.

Back on Earth, two astronauts and a cosmonaut are preparing to join Expedition 24. Flight Engineers Doug Wheelock, Shannon Walker and Fyodor Yurchikhin are in Kazakhstan readying for their launch aboard the Soyuz TMA-19 spacecraft on Tuesday at 5:35 p.m. EDT.

The new station crew members will arrive and dock to the aft end of the Zvezda service module on Thursday at 6:25 p.m. Ten days later Wheelock, Walker and Yurchikhin will relocate the Soyuz TMA-19 vehicle from Zvezda to the Rassvet Mini-Research Module. The Rassvet is the station’s newest module, and this will be the first time a spacecraft will dock there.

NASA on Arctic Voyage to Probe Ocean, Climate Changes

NASA’s first dedicated oceanographic field campaign goes to sea next week to take an up-close look at how changing conditions in the Arctic are affecting the ocean’s chemistry and ecosystems that play a critical role in global climate change.

The ICESCAPE mission, which stands for "Impacts of Climate on Ecosystems and Chemistry of the Arctic Pacific Environment," will investigate the impacts of climate change on the ecology and biogeochemistry of the Chukchi and Beaufort seas along Alaska's northern coast. ICESCAPE takes to sea onboard the U.S. Coast Guard Cutter Healy, the United States’ newest and most technologically advanced polar icebreaker. The Healy conducts a wide range of research activities and is designed to break four-and-a-half feet of ice continuously at three knots.

A key focus of the mission is how changes in the Arctic may be altering the ocean’s ability to absorb carbon from the atmosphere. The greenhouse gas carbon dioxide is a leading cause of global warming.

Predictions of future climate change depend on knowing the details of how this carbon cycle works in different parts of the world. NASA’s Earth science program conducts research into the global Earth system using satellite observations. Identifying how Earth's ecology and chemistry are influenced by natural processes and by humans is a key part of this research.

The Arctic Ocean, unlike other oceans, is almost completely landlocked, making it an ideal location to study ongoing climate changes in a marine ecosystem already heavily impacted by declining sea ice cover, ocean acidification, and an increase in incoming solar radiation. These changes are likely to modify the physics, biogeochemistry, and ecology of this environment in ways that are not well understood. Satellite remote sensing has provided some insight into these changes which ICESCAPE is designed to advance.

"The ocean ecosystem in the Arctic has changed dramatically in recent years, and it’s changing much faster and much more than any other ocean in the world," said ICESCAPE chief scientist Kevin Arrigo of Stanford University. "Declining sea ice in the Arctic is certainly one reason for the change, but that’s not the whole story. We need to find out, for example, where the nutrients are coming from that feed this growth if we are going to be able to predict what the future holds for this region."

The Healy leaves Dutch Harbor in Alaska's Aleutian Islands on June 15 and heads to the Bering Strait where it begins ocean sampling. The voyage continues across the southern Chukchi Sea and into the Beaufort Sea along northern Alaska’s ocean shelf. In early July the Healy will head north into deeper waters to sample thick, multi-year sea ice and take samples within and beneath the ice.

More than 40 scientists will spend five weeks at sea sampling the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the ocean and sea ice. A variety of instruments will be used onboard the Healy and deployed into the ocean and on the sea ice.

An automated microscope onboard will take continuous digital photographs of phytoplankton cells for near-real time observations of the quantity of different species. Floats with near-real time satellite communication will be placed in the ocean to measure temperature and various biological and optical properties. Scientists also will work on the sea ice several hundred yards from the ship to study the condition of the ice and sample the ocean ecosystem beneath it

Images Suggest Rogue Asteroid Smacked Jupiter

Without warning, a mystery object struck Jupiter on July 19, 2009, leaving a dark bruise the size of the Pacific Ocean. The spot first caught the eye of an amateur astronomer in Australia, and soon, observatories around the world, including NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope, were zeroing in on the unexpected blemish.

Astronomers had witnessed this kind of cosmic event before. Similar scars had been left behind during the course of a week in July 1994, when more than 20 pieces of Comet P/Shoemaker-Levy 9 (SL9) plunged into Jupiter’s atmosphere. The 2009 impact occurred during the same week, 15 years later.

Astronomers who compared Hubble images of both collisions say the culprit may have been an asteroid about 1,600 feet (500 meters) wide. The images, therefore, may show for the first time the immediate aftermath of an asteroid, rather than a comet, striking another planet.

The Jupiter bombardments reveal that the solar system is a rambunctious place, where unpredictable events may occur more frequently than first thought.

“This solitary event caught us by surprise, and we can only see the aftermath of the impact, but fortunately we do have the 1994 Hubble observations that captured the full range of impact phenomena, including the nature of the objects from pre-impact observations” says astronomer Heidi Hammel of the Space Science Institute in Boulder, Colo., leader of the Jupiter impact study.

"The object that hit Jupiter this time would have been small, dark, and cold—in other words, hard for us to see before the impact, regardless of which wavelength we used for observations," adds Amy Simon-Miller, a co-investigator at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md.

In 2009 Hammel’s team snapped images of the debris field with Hubble’s recently installed Wide Field Camera 3 and newly repaired Advanced Camera for Surveys.

The analysis revealed key differences between the two collisions (in 1994 and 2009), providing clues to the 2009 event. Astronomers saw a distinct halo around the 1994 impact sites in Hubble ultraviolet (UV) images, evidence of fine dust arising from a comet-fragment strike. The UV images also showed a strong contrast between impact-generated debris and Jupiter’s clouds.

Hubble UV images of the 2009 impact showed no halo and also revealed that the site’s contrast faded rapidly. Both clues suggest a lack of lightweight particles, providing circumstantial evidence for an impact by a solid asteroid rather than a dusty comet.

The elongated shape of the recent impact site also differs from the 1994 strike, indicating that the 2009 object descended from a shallower angle than the SL9 fragments. The 2009 body also came from a different direction than the SL9 pieces.

The visible spectrum, however, was "nearly identical in this case to what we saw for SL9," says Simon-Miller, who recalculated the SL9 spectrum for this analysis. "This isn't surprising, because most of the debris we're looking at is actually burnt-up atmosphere: hydrogen, hydrocarbons, and soot. It's very black, just like the soot we're familiar with, and has a very flat spectrum."

By analyzing the temperatures and the spread of debris around the impact site, Simon-Miller also determined that much of the debris was located high in Jupiter's stratosphere. "Based on the temperature, we figured out how the wind changed with height," she explains. "And by looking at how the debris was moving, we figured out how high in altitude it must be."

Team member Agustín Sanchez-Lavéga of the University of the Basque Country in Bilbao, Spain, and colleagues performed an analysis of possible orbits that the 2009 impacting body could have taken to collide with Jupiter. Their work indicates the object probably came from the Hilda family of bodies, a secondary asteroid belt consisting of more than 1,100 asteroids orbiting near Jupiter.

The 2009 strike was equal to a few thousand standard nuclear bombs exploding, comparable to the blasts from the medium-sized fragments of SL9. The largest of those fragments created explosions that were many times more powerful than the world’s entire nuclear arsenal blowing up at once.

The recent impact underscores the important work performed by amateur astronomers. “This event beautifully illustrates how amateur and professional astronomers can work together,” notes Hammel.